Hofstede, Neuijen, Daval Ohayv & Sanders (1990). Measuring organizational cultures: A qualitative and quantitative study across twenty cases.

“… the differences among these twenty units could be explained by six factors, related to established concepts from organizational sociology …” (p 286)

“These were labelled ‘power distance’ (large vs. small), ‘uncertainty avoidance’ (strong vs. weak), ‘individualism’ vs. ‘collectivism,’ and ‘masculinity’ vs. ‘femininity.’ All 53 countries and regions could be scored on all four dimensions; the four together accounted for 49 percent of the variance in country mean scores on 32 values and perceptions questions.” (p 288)

“… correlate significantly with a multitude of comparative national data from other sources …” (p 288)

“The four-dimensional model of national culture differences certainly does not represent the ultimate truth about the subject, but it has so far served as a useful framework for teaching both practitioners (such as future expatriates) and students and for guiding research design in the previously fuzzy field of national cultures (e.g., Bourgoin, 1984; Triandis, 1984; Triandis et al., 1986; Kreacic and Marsh, 1986; Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey, 1988).” (p 288)

“We classified manifestations of culture into four categories: symbols, heroes, rituals, and values, as shown in Figure 1.” (p 291)

“Symbols are words, gestures, pictures, or objects that carry a particular meaning within a culture. Heroes are persons, alive or dead, real or imaginary, who possess characteristics highly prized in the culture and who thus serve as models for behavior (Wilkins, 1984). Rituals are collective activities that are technically superfluous but are socially essential within a culture-they are therefore carried out for their own sake. In Figure 1, we have drawn these as the successive skins of an onion-from shallow, superficial symbols to deeper rituals. Symbols, heroes, and rituals can be subsumed under the term ‘practices,’ because they are visible to an observer although their cultural meaning lies in the way they are perceived by insiders. The core of culture, according to Figure 1, is formed by values, in the sense of broad, nonspecific feelings of good and evil, beautiful and ugly, normal and abnormal, rational and irrational-feelings that are often unconscious and rarely discussable, that cannot be observed as such but are manifested in alternatives of behavior.” (p 291) [Ref Deal and Kennedy, 1982]

[Example survey questions]

“The interview checklist contained questions like the following: ‘What are special terms here that only insiders understand?’ (to identify organizational symbols); ‘What kind of people are most likely to make a fast career here?’; ‘Whom do you consider as particularly meaningful persons for this organization?’ (to identify organizational heroes); ‘In what periodic meetings do you participate?’; ‘How do people behave during these meetings?’; ‘Which events are celebrated in this organization?’ (to identify organizational rituals); and ‘What things do people very much like to see happening here?’; ‘What is the biggest mistake one can make?’; ‘Which work problems can keep you awake at night?’ (to identify organizational values). Interviewers were free to probe for more and other information if they felt it was there.” (p 292)

“Various sociologists, political scientists, and cross-cultural psychologists have since shown that ecological correlations are not necessarily a source of fallacies but that they represent the proper focus for analysis when we are dealing with social systems (Menzel, 1950; Blau, 1960; Tannenbaum and Bachman, 1964; Scheuch, 1966; Przeworski and Teune, 1970: ch. 3; Leung and Bond, 1989). Meltzer (1963) produced a striking example: using data from a survey of 539 U.S. volunteers divided into 79 groups, he showed that on issues in which group processes played a role, individuals’ attitudes could be better predicted from the group’s mean scores on related questions than from the individuals’ own scores on these questions.” (p 298)

[Discussion of reasons for choosing and organizing survey questions for values surrounding uncertainty avoidance, "need for security." Table showing results of factor analyses. (p 300-301)]

[Discussion of "practice differences," along with table showing results of factor analyses for practice items. (p 302-303)]

Notable references

Deal, Terrence E., and Allan A. Kennedy (1982) Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Hofstede, Geert (1967) The Game of Budget Control. Assen, Neth. and London: Van Gorcum/Tavistock.

Hofstede, Geert (1980) Culture’s Consequences. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Hofstede, Geert (1983b) “National cultures in four dimensions.” International Studies of Management and Organization, 13: 46-74.

Hofstede, Geert (1983d) “National cultures revisited.” Behavior Science Research, 18: 285-305.
Peters, Thomas J., and Richard H. Waterman (1982) In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America’s Best-Run Companies. New York: Harper & Row.